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Home  ›  Which Of The Following Is The Most Likely Explanation For The Changes In Democratsã¢â‚¬â„¢ Ideology?

Which Of The Following Is The Most Likely Explanation For The Changes In Democratsã¢â‚¬â„¢ Ideology?

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Gear up of behavior and values attributed to a person or group of people

An credo is a fix of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or grouping of persons, especially as held for reasons that are non purely epistemic,[ane] [ii] in which "practical elements are as prominent equally theoretical ones."[3] Formerly practical primarily to economic, political, or religious theories and policies, in a tradition going dorsum to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, more than recent use treats the term as mainly condemnatory.[four]

The term was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy, a French Enlightenment aristocrat and philosopher, who conceived it in 1796 as the "science of ideas" to develop a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational impulses of the mob. In political science, the term is used in a descriptive sense to refer to political belief systems.[4]

Etymology and history [edit]

The term ideology originates from French idéologie, itself deriving from combining Greek: idéā ( ἰδέα , 'notion, pattern'; close to the Lockean sense of idea) and -logíā ( -λογῐ́ᾱ , 'the report of').

The term ideology, and the system of ideas associated with it, was coined in 1796 by Antoine Destutt de Tracy while in prison house pending trial during the Reign of Terror, where he read the works of Locke and Condillac.[5] Hoping to form a secure foundation for the moral and political sciences, Tracy devised the term for a "science of ideas," basing such upon two things:

  1. the sensations that people experience as they interact with the material world; and
  2. the ideas that form in their minds due to those sensations.

He conceived ideology as a liberal philosophy that would defend individual liberty, property, complimentary markets, and constitutional limits on state ability. He argues that, among these aspects, ideology is the virtually generic term because the 'science of ideas' besides contains the study of their expression and deduction.[6] The coup that overthrew Maximilien Robespierre allowed Tracy to pursue his work.[6] Tracy reacted to the terroristic phase of the revolution (during the Napoleonic authorities) by trying to work out a rational organisation of ideas to oppose the irrational mob impulses that had nearly destroyed him.

A subsequent early source for the near-original meaning of ideology is Hippolyte Taine'south work on the Ancien Régime, Origins of Contemporary France I. He describes ideology every bit rather like pedagogy philosophy via the Socratic method, though without extending the vocabulary beyond what the general reader already possessed, and without the examples from observation that practical science would require. Taine identifies it non just with Destutt De Tracy, merely likewise with his milieu, and includes Condillac as one of its precursors.

Napoleon Bonaparte came to view credo as a term of corruption, which he oft hurled confronting his liberal foes in Tracy's Institutional. According to Karl Mannheim's historical reconstruction of the shifts in the meaning of ideology, the modern pregnant of the word was built-in when Napoleon used it to describe his opponents equally "the ideologues." Tracy's major volume, The Elements of Ideology, was before long translated into the major languages of Europe.

In the century post-obit Tracy, the term credo moved back and forth betwixt positive and negative connotations. During this next generation, when post-Napoleonic governments adopted a reactionary stance, influenced the Italian, Castilian and Russian thinkers who had begun to depict themselves as "liberals" and who attempted to reignite revolutionary activeness in the early 1820s, including the Carlist rebels in Espana; the Carbonari societies in France and Italy; and the Decembrists in Russia. Karl Marx adopted Napoleon's negative sense of the term, using it in his writings, in which he one time described Tracy every bit a fischblütige Bourgeoisdoktrinär (a 'fish-blooded bourgeois doctrinaire').[vii]

The term has since dropped some of its pejorative sting, and has go a neutral term in the analysis of differing political opinions and views of social groups.[8] While Marx situated the term within course struggle and domination,[9] [ten] others believed information technology was a necessary part of institutional functioning and social integration.[11]

Definitions and assay [edit]

There are many dissimilar kinds of ideologies, including political, social, epistemological, and ethical.

Recent analysis tends to posit that ideology is a 'coherent system of ideas' that rely on a few basic assumptions about reality that may or may not have any factual basis. Through this system, ideas get coherent, repeated patterns through the subjective ongoing choices that people make. These ideas serve as the seed effectually which further thought grows. The conventionalities in an ideology tin can range from passive acceptance upwards to fervent advocacy. According to about recent analysis, ideologies are neither necessarily right nor incorrect.

Definitions, such as by Manfred Steger and Paul James emphasize both the effect of patterning and contingent claims to truth:[12]

Ideologies are patterned clusters of normatively imbued ideas and concepts, including particular representations of power relations. These conceptual maps assistance people navigate the complication of their political universe and carry claims to social truth.

Studies of the concept of ideology itself (rather than specific ideologies) have been carried out under the name of systematic ideology in the works of George Walford and Harold Walsby, who endeavour to explore the relationships between ideology and social systems.[ example needed ]

David W. Minar describes half dozen unlike ways the give-and-take ideology has been used:[thirteen]

  1. Equally a collection of sure ideas with sure kinds of content, usually normative;
  2. Every bit the form or internal logical structure that ideas have within a prepare;
  3. By the role ideas play in human-social interaction;
  4. By the role ideas play in the structure of an organisation;
  5. Every bit significant, whose purpose is persuasion; and
  6. As the locus of social interaction.

For Willard A. Mullins, an ideology should be assorted with the related (merely different) bug of utopia and historical myth. An credo is composed of four bones characteristics:[14]

  1. it must have power over cognition;
  2. information technology must be capable of guiding one's evaluations;
  3. it must provide guidance towards activity; and
  4. it must be logically coherent.

Terry Eagleton outlines (more or less in no particular order) some definitions of ideology:[15]

  1. The process of product of meanings, signs and values in social life
  2. A torso of ideas characteristic of a particular social group or form
  3. Ideas that help legitimate a ascendant political power
  4. False ideas that help legitimate a dominant political ability
  5. Systematically distorted communication
  6. Ideas that offer a position for a bailiwick
  7. Forms of thought motivated by social interests
  8. Identity thinking
  9. Socially necessary illusion
  10. The conjuncture of discourse and power
  11. The medium in which conscious social actors brand sense of their world
  12. Action-oriented sets of beliefs
  13. The confusion of linguistic and phenomenal reality
  14. Semiotic closure[xv] : 197
  15. The indispensable medium in which individuals live out their relations to a social structure
  16. The process that converts social life to a natural reality

German philosopher Christian Duncker called for a "critical reflection of the credo concept."[16] In his piece of work, he strove to bring the concept of credo into the foreground, too every bit the closely continued concerns of epistemology and history, defining ideology in terms of a system of presentations that explicitly or implicitly merits to absolute truth.

Marxist interpretation [edit]

Karl Marx posits that a society'due south dominant credo is integral to its superstructure.

Marx's analysis sees credo as a system of falsehoods deliberately promulgated by the ruling grade as a means of self-perpetuation.[17]

In the Marxist base of operations and superstructure model of society, base denotes the relations of production and modes of production, and superstructure denotes the dominant ideology (i.eastward. religious, legal, political systems). The economical base of production determines the political superstructure of a social club. Ruling class-interests determine the superstructure and the nature of the justifying ideology—deportment feasible because the ruling class control the means of product. For example, in a feudal mode of production, religious ideology is the most prominent aspect of the superstructure, while in capitalist formations, ideologies such as liberalism and social republic dominate. Hence the neat importance of the ideology justifying a order; information technology politically confuses the alienated groups of society via simulated consciousness.

Some explanations take been presented. Antonio Gramsci uses cultural hegemony to explain why the working-class have a fake ideological conception of what their best interests are. Marx argued that "The class which has the means of material product at its disposal has control at the aforementioned time over the means of mental production."[18]

The Marxist formulation of "ideology as an instrument of social reproduction" is conceptually important to the sociology of knowledge,[19] viz. Karl Mannheim, Daniel Bell, and Jürgen Habermas et al. Moreover, Mannheim has developed, and progressed, from the "total" but "special" Marxist formulation of credo to a "general" and "full" ideological conception acknowledging that all ideology (including Marxism) resulted from social life, an idea developed past the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu. Slavoj Žižek and the earlier Frankfurt School added to the "general theory" of ideology a psychoanalytic insight that ideologies do non include only conscious, but also unconscious ideas.

Ideological state apparatuses (Althusser) [edit]

French Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser proposed that ideology is "the imagined being (or idea) of things as it relates to the real conditions of beingness" and makes utilise of a lacunar discourse. A number of propositions, which are never untrue, suggest a number of other propositions, which are. In this fashion, the essence of the lacunar discourse is what is not told (but is suggested).

For case, the statement "All are equal before the constabulary," which is a theoretical background of current legal systems, suggests that all people may be of equal worth or have equal opportunities. This is not true, for the concept of private property and ability over the means of production results in some people existence able to own more (much more) than others. This power disparity contradicts the merits that all share both practical worth and future opportunity as; for instance, the rich can afford better legal representation, which practically privileges them before the law.

Althusser too proffered the concept of the ideological land apparatus to explain his theory of ideology. His showtime thesis was "credo has no history": while private ideologies have histories, interleaved with the general class struggle of society, the general form of ideology is external to history.

For Althusser, beliefs and ideas are the products of social practices, not the opposite. His thesis that "ideas are cloth" is illustrated by the "scandalous advice" of Pascal toward unbelievers: "Kneel and pray, so you will believe." What is ultimately ideological for Althusser are not the subjective beliefs held in the conscious "minds" of human individuals, but rather discourses that produce these behavior, the material institutions and rituals that individuals take part in without submitting it to witting examination and so much more disquisitional thinking.

Ideology and the Commodity (Debord) [edit]

The French Marxist theorist Guy Debord, founding member of the Situationist International, argued that when the commodity becomes the "essential category" of society, i.east. when the procedure of commodification has been consummated to its fullest extent, the image of club propagated by the article (every bit it describes all of life as constituted by notions and objects deriving their value only as commodities tradeable in terms of exchange value), colonizes all of life and reduces society to a mere representation, The Club of the Spectacle.[twenty]

Ideology and rationality (Vietta) [edit]

German cultural historian Silvio Vietta described the evolution and expansion of Western rationality from ancient times onward as oft accompanied past and shaped past ideologies like that of the "but war," the "true religion," racism, nationalism, or the vision of hereafter history as a kind of 'heaven on earth' in communism. He said that ideas similar these became ideologies by giving hegemonic political actions an idealistic veneer and equipping their leaders with a college and, in the "political religions" (Eric Voegelin), nearly God-like ability, so that they became masters over the lives (and the deaths) of millions of people. He considered that ideologies therefore contributed to power politics irrational shields of ideas beneath which they could operate as manifestations of idealism.[21] [22]

Unifying agents (Hoffer) [edit]

The American philosopher Eric Hoffer identified several elements that unify followers of a particular ideology:[23]

  1. Hatred: "Mass movements tin rising and spread without a God, but never without conventionalities in a devil."[23] The "platonic devil" is a foreigner.[23] : 93
  2. Imitation: "The less satisfaction we derive from being ourselves, the greater is our want to exist similar others…the more we mistrust our judgment and luck, the more are nosotros set up to follow the example of others."[23] : 101–2
  3. Persuasion: The proselytizing zeal of propagandists derives from "a passionate search for something non notwithstanding found more than a want to bestow something we already have."[23] : 110
  4. Coercion: Hoffer asserts that violence and fanaticism are interdependent. People forcibly converted to Islamic or communist behavior become as fanatical as those who did the forcing. "It takes fanatical religion to rationalize our cowardice."[23] : 107–8
  5. Leadership: Without the leader, at that place is no movement. Often the leader must await long in the wings until the time is ripe. He calls for sacrifices in the nowadays, to justify his vision of a breathtaking hereafter. The skills required include: audacity, brazenness, atomic number 26 will, fanatical conviction; passionate hatred, cunning, a please in symbols; ability to inspire blind faith in the masses; and a group of able lieutenants.[23] : 112–4 Charlatanism is indispensable, and the leader often imitates both friend and foe, "a single-minded fashioning after a model." He will not pb followers towards the "promised state," merely merely "away from their unwanted selves."[23] : 116–9
  6. Action: Original thoughts are suppressed, and unity encouraged, if the masses are kept occupied through nifty projects, marches, exploration and industry.[23] : 120–1
  7. Suspicion: "There is prying and spying, tense watching and a tense awareness of being watched." This pathological mistrust goes unchallenged and encourages conformity, not dissent.[23] : 124

Ronald Inglehart [edit]

Ronald Inglehart of the University of Michigan is writer of the Earth Values Survey, which, since 1980, has mapped social attitudes in 100 countries representing xc% of global population. Results bespeak that where people live is likely to closely correlate with their ideological beliefs. In much of Africa, Southward Asia and the Heart East, people adopt traditional behavior and are less tolerant of liberal values. Protestant Europe, at the other extreme, adheres more to secular behavior and liberal values. Lone amidst loftier-income countries, the United States is exceptional in its adherence to traditional beliefs, in this case Christianity.

Political ideologies [edit]

In social studies, a political ideology is a sure upstanding set of ideals, principles, doctrines, myths, or symbols of a social movement, institution, grade, or big group that explains how society should piece of work, offering some political and cultural blueprint for a sure social order. Political ideologies are concerned with many different aspects of a lodge, including (for instance): the economy, educational activity, health care, labor law, criminal law, the justice system, the provision of social security and social welfare, merchandise, the environment, minors, immigration, race, use of the military, patriotism, and established religion.

Political ideologies accept two dimensions:

  1. Goals: how gild should work; and
  2. Methods: the most appropriate ways to achieve the ideal arrangement.

There are many proposed methods for the classification of political ideologies, each of these different methods generate a specific political spectrum.[ citation needed ] Ideologies also place themselves by their position on the spectrum (e.m. the left, the middle or the right), though precision in this respect tin can oft become controversial. Finally, ideologies can be distinguished from political strategies (e.yard., populism) and from single bug that a party may be built around (e.chiliad. legalization of marijuana). Philosopher Michael Oakeshott defines such ideology equally "the formalized abridgment of the supposed sub-stratum of the rational truth contained in the tradition." Moreover, Charles Blattberg offers an account that distinguishes political ideologies from political philosophies.[24]

A political ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocate power and to what ends power should be used. Some parties follow a certain ideology very closely, while others may take wide inspiration from a group of related ideologies without specifically embracing any one of them. Each political ideology contains certain ideas on what it considers the best form of government (e.g., democracy, demagogy, theocracy, caliphate etc.), and the best economical organisation (due east.chiliad. commercialism, socialism, etc.). Sometimes the same word is used to identify both an ideology and one of its main ideas. For instance, socialism may refer to an economical system, or information technology may refer to an ideology that supports that economic organisation.

Mail 1991, many commentators merits that we are living in a post-ideological age,[25] in which redemptive, all-encompassing ideologies have failed. This view is frequently associated with Francis Fukuyama's writings on the end of history.[26] Contrastly, Nienhueser (2011) sees research (in the field of human resource management) equally ongoingly "generating ideology."[27]

Slavoj Zizek has pointed out how the very notion of postal service-ideology can enable the deepest, blindest form of ideology. A sort of false consciousness or imitation cynicism, engaged in for the purpose of lending one'south point of view the respect of being objective, pretending neutral cynicism, without truly being so. Rather than help avoiding ideology, this lapse only deepens the commitment to an existing one. Zizek calls this "a postal service-modernist trap."[28] Peter Sloterdijk advanced the aforementioned idea already in 1988.[29]

Studies have shown that political ideology is somewhat genetically heritable.[30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37]

Ideocracy [edit]

When a political ideology becomes a dominantly pervasive component within a regime, one tin speak of an ideocracy.[38] Different forms of government utilize credo in various means, not always restricted to politics and guild. Certain ideas and schools of thought go favored, or rejected, over others, depending on their compatibility with or use for the reigning social order.

As John Maynard Keynes expresses, "Madmen in authority, who hear voices in the air, are distilling their frenzy from some academic scribbler of a few years back."[39]

How do ideologies go role of authorities policy? In The Anatomy of Revolution, Crane Brinton said that new ideology spreads when there is discontent with an old authorities.[xl] Extremists such as Lenin and Robespierre volition overcome more moderate revolutionaries.[41] This phase is soon followed past Thermidor, a reining back of revolutionary enthusiasm under pragmatists similar Stalin and Napoleon Bonaparte, who bring "normalcy and equilibrium."[42] Briton'due south sequence ("men of ideas>fanatics>practical men of action") is reiterated past J. William Fulbright,[43] while a similar form occurs in Eric Hoffer's The True Believer.[44] The revolution thus becomes established as an ideocracy, though its rise is probable to be checked by a 'political midlife crisis.'

Epistemological ideologies [edit]

Even when the challenging of existing beliefs is encouraged, as in scientific theories, the dominant prototype or mindset can prevent certain challenges, theories, or experiments from existence avant-garde.

A special example of science that has inspired credo is ecology, which studies the relationships among living things on Earth. Perceptual psychologist James J. Gibson believed that human being perception of ecological relationships was the basis of cocky-awareness and knowledge itself.[45] Linguist George Lakoff has proposed a cognitive science of mathematics wherein even the most cardinal ideas of arithmetic would exist seen as consequences or products of man perception—which is itself necessarily evolved within an ecology.[46]

Deep ecology and the modernistic ecology motion (and, to a lesser degree, Green parties) appear to have adopted ecological sciences as a positive ideology.[47]

Some notable economically based ideologies include neoliberalism, monetarism, mercantilism, mixed economy, social Darwinism, communism, laissez-faire economics, and costless trade. There are also current theories of safe trade and fair merchandise that can be seen every bit ideologies.

Ideology and the social sciences [edit]

Psychological enquiry [edit]

A large amount of research in psychology is concerned with the causes, consequences and content of ideology.[48] [49] [50] According to system justification theory,[51] ideologies reverberate (unconscious) motivational processes, every bit opposed to the view that political convictions always reverberate independent and unbiased thinking. Jost, Ledgerwood and Hardin (2008) propose that ideologies may office as prepackaged units of estimation that spread considering of basic human being motives to understand the world, avert existential threat, and maintain valued interpersonal relationships.[51] The authors conclude that such motives may lead unduly to the adoption of arrangement-justifying worldviews. Psychologists generally concur that personality traits, individual difference variables, needs, and ideological beliefs seem to have something in common.[52]

Semiotic theory [edit]

According to semiotician Bob Hodge:[53]

[Ideology] identifies a unitary object that incorporates complex sets of meanings with the social agents and processes that produced them. No other term captures this object as well as 'credo'. Foucault's 'episteme' is too narrow and abstract, not social plenty. His 'discourse', popular because it covers some of ideology'southward terrain with less baggage, is too confined to exact systems. 'Worldview' is as well metaphysical, 'propaganda' too loaded. Despite or because of its contradictions, 'ideology' still plays a key part in semiotics oriented to social, political life.

Authors such equally Michael Freeden accept also recently incorporated a semantic assay to the study of ideologies.

Sociology [edit]

Sociologists define ideology as "cultural beliefs that justify particular social arrangements, including patterns of inequality."[54] Ascendant groups apply these sets of cultural behavior and practices to justify the systems of inequality that maintain their group's social power over non-dominant groups. Ideologies utilise a club's symbol organization to organize social relations in a hierarchy, with some social identities existence superior to other social identities, which are considered inferior. The dominant ideology in a society is passed forth through the society's major social institutions, such every bit the media, the family, education, and religion.[55] Every bit societies changed throughout history, and then did the ideologies that justified systems of inequality.[54]

Sociological examples of ideologies include: racism; sexism; heterosexism; ableism; and ethnocentrism.[56]

Quotations [edit]

  • "We exercise not need…to believe in an ideology. All that is necessary is for each of us to develop our good man qualities. The need for a sense of universal responsibility affects every aspect of mod life." — Dalai Lama.[57]
  • "The office of ideology is to stabilize and perpetuate dominance through masking or illusion." — Sally Haslanger[58]
  • "[A]n ideology differs from a unproblematic opinion in that it claims to possess either the key to history, or the solution for all the 'riddles of the universe,' or the intimate knowledge of the hidden universal laws, which are supposed to rule nature and man." — Hannah Arendt[59]

See also [edit]

  • The Beefcake of Revolution
  • List of communist ideologies
  • Capitalism
  • Feminism
  • Hegemony
  • -ism
  • Listing of ideologies named afterward people
  • Ideocracy
  • Noble prevarication
  • Social criticism
  • Socially synthetic reality
  • State plummet
  • Land credo of the Soviet Union
  • The True Believer
  • Earth Values Survey
  • World view

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Bibliography [edit]

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  • Belloni, Claudio. 2013. Per la critica dell'ideologia: Filosofia e storia in Marx. Milan: Mimesis.
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External links [edit]

  • The Pervert's Guide to Ideology: How Ideology Seduces Us—and How We Can (Try to) Escape It
  • Ideology Study Guide
  • Louis Althusser's "Credo and Ideological Land Apparatuses"
  • Toll, Mathew (2009),Ideology and Symbolic Power: Betwixt Althusser and Bourdieu

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideology

Posted by: georgewrond1958.blogspot.com

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